Two opposite positions characterize the present way of conceiving science
and technology. The most widespread renders them identical, as being practically
one and the same thing (the so-called "technoscience"), in which the "intellectual"
features of modern science dominate the traditional "manual" features of
technology; so that technology itself has become "scientific" to such an extent that
it is impossible to distinguish it from science. This view is tacitly presupposed in
the way common sense understands the "progress of science." When we try to
make this notion concrete, we almost inevitably put forth examples of
technological achievments as instances of scientific progress.
Arriving at the same conclusion (but following an inverse path), certain approaches treat science itself (in its "modern" form) as so deeply affected by the spirit of technology—which consists in the proposal of dominating and utilizing nature—that it has become indistinguishable from technology. This second view is common both to several "instrumentalist" trends in contemporary philosophy of science and to some no less influential doctrines that press an essentially negative judgment about science, because (allegedly) modern science was born of the same pretension toward "manipulating being" that is the core of technology, and this implies, as a consequence, an attitude of violence that underlies technology. (Heidegger was the most famous initiator of this doctrine, which has found many followers in the present intellectual climate.) Contrary to these two views is the position of those scholars who stress the different aims of science and technology: science aims at attaining objective knowledge and is therefore characterized by a strict cognitive attitude; while technology aims at producing concrete results (in the form of objects,
Contrary to these two views is the position of those scholars who stress the different aims of science and technology: science aims at attaining objective knowledge and is therefore characterized by a strict cognitive attitude; while technology aims at producing concrete results (in the form of objects,commodities, tools, or procedures) and is therefore characterized by a pragmatic attitude. This position has often been advocated in the context of discussing the socalled "neutrality of science" and in debates concerning the social or moral responsibility of science (where the intent is to free science of such a responsibility).
FROM TECHNIQUE TO TECHNOLOGY
Both positions contain some aspects of truth, but both are affected by certain misunderstandings. In order to critically evaluate them, we shall start by proposing a distinction between technique and technology; to a certain extent, this is conventional, but it is not arbitrary. It is not based upon a simple linguistic analysis but reflects certain conceptual differences that may suitably be appended to a double terminology that happens to exist in our languages.
The suffix, "ology" that we find in the word technology, invites us to take advantage of the theoretical aspect that is usually bound up with its use (compare theology, sociology, philology, ethnology); it serves to indicate the presence of some kind of "scientific," or at least theoretical dimension. In fact, the Greek term techne already included this theoretical aspect, since it was used to indicatethe capability of justifying, of "knowing why," a certain efficient procedure was efficient.
The term techne is often translated as "art," but today this is imprecise, since for us art concerns essentially the beautiful or aesthetic expression. Plato, Aristotle, and the great doctor-philosopher Hippocrates all tell us that the characteristics of techne are parallel to those of episteme—that is, science— insofar as both are types of knowledge which demonstrate the reasons for what is observed empirically. Episteme focuses attention on the truth of what is known; with techne, the focus is on efficiency. The first concerns pure knowledge; the second, knowledge of doing or making. If it is true that the domain of the pure and simple knowledge of doing or making (that is, knowledge of how to do something that does not necessarily imply knowledge as to why the end is achieved) can be called the domain of technique, then we ought to find another term to designate that further dimension wherein efficient operation is conscious of the reasons for its efficacy and is founded upon them; that is, where operation is nourished by its grounding in theoretical knowledge. This new term is technology. Hence, in this sense we can say that the idea of technology is clearly prefigured in the Greek notion of techne.
THE SENSE OF A BIFURCATION
In this presentation, we can see a kind of continuity; at the same time, there is a significant bifurcation between technique and technology. The continuity consists in the fact that technology remains within the framework of technique (it remains an effort to maintain efficacious procedures for producing objects or
Arriving at the same conclusion (but following an inverse path), certain approaches treat science itself (in its "modern" form) as so deeply affected by the spirit of technology—which consists in the proposal of dominating and utilizing nature—that it has become indistinguishable from technology. This second view is common both to several "instrumentalist" trends in contemporary philosophy of science and to some no less influential doctrines that press an essentially negative judgment about science, because (allegedly) modern science was born of the same pretension toward "manipulating being" that is the core of technology, and this implies, as a consequence, an attitude of violence that underlies technology. (Heidegger was the most famous initiator of this doctrine, which has found many followers in the present intellectual climate.) Contrary to these two views is the position of those scholars who stress the different aims of science and technology: science aims at attaining objective knowledge and is therefore characterized by a strict cognitive attitude; while technology aims at producing concrete results (in the form of objects,
Contrary to these two views is the position of those scholars who stress the different aims of science and technology: science aims at attaining objective knowledge and is therefore characterized by a strict cognitive attitude; while technology aims at producing concrete results (in the form of objects,commodities, tools, or procedures) and is therefore characterized by a pragmatic attitude. This position has often been advocated in the context of discussing the socalled "neutrality of science" and in debates concerning the social or moral responsibility of science (where the intent is to free science of such a responsibility).
FROM TECHNIQUE TO TECHNOLOGY
Both positions contain some aspects of truth, but both are affected by certain misunderstandings. In order to critically evaluate them, we shall start by proposing a distinction between technique and technology; to a certain extent, this is conventional, but it is not arbitrary. It is not based upon a simple linguistic analysis but reflects certain conceptual differences that may suitably be appended to a double terminology that happens to exist in our languages.
The suffix, "ology" that we find in the word technology, invites us to take advantage of the theoretical aspect that is usually bound up with its use (compare theology, sociology, philology, ethnology); it serves to indicate the presence of some kind of "scientific," or at least theoretical dimension. In fact, the Greek term techne already included this theoretical aspect, since it was used to indicatethe capability of justifying, of "knowing why," a certain efficient procedure was efficient.
The term techne is often translated as "art," but today this is imprecise, since for us art concerns essentially the beautiful or aesthetic expression. Plato, Aristotle, and the great doctor-philosopher Hippocrates all tell us that the characteristics of techne are parallel to those of episteme—that is, science— insofar as both are types of knowledge which demonstrate the reasons for what is observed empirically. Episteme focuses attention on the truth of what is known; with techne, the focus is on efficiency. The first concerns pure knowledge; the second, knowledge of doing or making. If it is true that the domain of the pure and simple knowledge of doing or making (that is, knowledge of how to do something that does not necessarily imply knowledge as to why the end is achieved) can be called the domain of technique, then we ought to find another term to designate that further dimension wherein efficient operation is conscious of the reasons for its efficacy and is founded upon them; that is, where operation is nourished by its grounding in theoretical knowledge. This new term is technology. Hence, in this sense we can say that the idea of technology is clearly prefigured in the Greek notion of techne.
THE SENSE OF A BIFURCATION
In this presentation, we can see a kind of continuity; at the same time, there is a significant bifurcation between technique and technology. The continuity consists in the fact that technology remains within the framework of technique (it remains an effort to maintain efficacious procedures for producing objects or
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